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Islamophobia and its consequences on Young People

European Youth Centre Budapest 1–6 June 2004

Seminar report: Ingrid Ramberg

The views expressed herein are the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the Council of Europe, its member states, the European Commission Against Racism and Intolerance or the Advisory Council on Youth.

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Layout: Ingrid Ramberg

Digital publishing partner: IS Edition, Marseille

Published by the Directorate of Democratic Citizenship and Participation of the Council of Europe

ISBN (print version): 92-871-5673-5

ISBN (ePub version): 978-92-871-8110-7

ISBN (Mobi version): 978-92-871-8111-4

© Council of Europe, 2004

Contents

Click here to see the table of contents of the whole book version.

Introduction – Questions about the Question

THIS REPORT DOCUMENTS an activity that is and will remain special for many reasons. Islamophobia is not an easy subject to deal with and, therefore, to write about. To start with, there is the questions of the definition: does Islamophobia exist? Is it useful to use the expression “Islamophobia”? Shouldn’t we simply talk of “discrimination” or “intolerance”? Is it true that the usage of the term Islamophobia can provoke more Islamophobia and hence further victimise Muslims in Europe? Is there anything special about Islamophobia and the way it affects young people in Europe? What is the point of a seminar on Islamophobia and its effects on young Europeans? And a report about it? Is there a risk that we are “overdoing it”?

There is a general consensus that racism and racial discrimination are unacceptable forms of human rights violations anywhere. They certainly remain a major concern for the Council of Europe. The forms that they take today are multiple, often apparently disconnected from “race” or racism. They are, however, worrying by their persistence, their consequences and also their trivialisation. It is practically undisputed that they have also recently taken a particular religious and “civilisational” connotation after terrorist attacks by groups claiming Islam to justify their acts. The debates about secularism and its implications in France and other countries and the application of Turkey to join the European Union have revealed uneasiness about accepting and managing religious and cultural diversity in Europe. This obviously refers to Europe itself – and what may be labelled as “European identity”, but we know that debating any “otherness” is always first and foremost a debate about ourselves. The concept that “ourselves” also includes, for example, Muslims, Jewish, Sikhs or Rastafarians is often neglected, so much so that it is easy to see them as part of the “others” without whom “we” would not make much sense.

Islamophobia can be defined as the fear of or prejudiced view-point towards Islam, Muslims and matters pertaining to them. Islamophobia is not a new phenomenon but we know that today many Muslim communities in Europe are experiencing an increasingly hostile environment towards them characterised by suspicion, deep-rooted prejudice, ignorance, and, in some cases, physical and verbal harassment. Whether it takes the shape of daily forms of racism and discrimination or more violent forms, Islamophobia is a violation of human rights and a threat to social cohesion. Young people are of course not immune to this. Young men and women are obviously affected when they become targets of Islamophobic attacks and abuse. But, just as importantly, they are also concerned by the general rise in discrimination and xenophobia, be it active or passive. In this respect, Islamophobia is a threat to our societies and to the values of human rights, pluralist democracy and the valuing of diversity as an asset.

The seminar has shown that Islamophobia is not a marginal phenomenon, it appears embedded in other forms of racial prejudice and discrimination. It has also shown in an exemplary manner that Islamophobia can not be analysed nor dealt with outside the wider context of racism and discrimination in Europe, in new and old forms. One needs, therefore, to take into account, for example, the troubling resurgence of Anti-Semitic attacks, the persistent forms of Romaphobia and segregation of Roma communities. Islamophobia can not be the concern of Muslims alone, in the same way that there are no “better” and “worse” forms of discrimination or xenophobia: for the one who is discriminated against, it is always a denial of dignity and an unacceptable form of humiliation.

The seminar was very fruitful with regards to the sharing of experiences and realities by the participants. Particularly valuable and inspiring were the examples of good practice and of projects through which young people engage in making cultural diversity more than a fashionable buzz word. Youth activities and projects alone can not stand against the dangers of irrational fear and hatred: public institutions and policies have an important role to play. The recommendations arising from the seminar provide useful suggestions and guidelines for actions and policies at both local and national level. They are intended first of all to be an inspiration and a reminder that we are all responsible for what we do and also for what we fail to do. In the face of that, it does not always matter if questions do not find an immediate and commonly voiced answer.

Acknowledgements

An activity that addresses Racism, Islamophobia, Romaphobia and Anti-Semitism is bound to be charged with emotional debates and controversial questions. To see clearly through it all, to become part of the discussions and yet to be able to preserve objectivity in order to be able to tell others about it is a very special art and talent. Ingrid Ramberg has succeeded in both of these areas in a way that was personal and real while being credible and faithful to the participants. We thank her for not giving up in the face of the difficulties which inevitably arose from her task.

Thanks are also due to the preparatory group of the seminar, the committed volunteers and their organisations, in other words all those who prepared for the programme and kept it on track:

Michael Privot, Forum of European Muslim Youth and Students Organisations,

Kélig Puyet, European Youth Forum,

Alexandra Raykova, Forum of European Roma Young People,

Mariam Yassin (Young Women from Minorities), Advisory Council on Youth

Sarah Eberle. Trainee at the European Youth Centre Budapest,

A big thank you also to the participants for their contributions to the programme and for volunteering. Without that the seminar and this report would not have become a reality.

Foreword

By the General Rapporteur

THE SEMINAR ON Islamophobia and its consequences on young people was intended as a contribution to the combating of Islamophobia, by exploring political and educational action aimed at increasing understanding and respect for religious diversity among young people in Europe. I think the get-together over four days served the purpose very well! It brought together people who, in spite of different religious affiliation, could share the same views. It showed that all faiths could be embraced in very different ways. And at some points it illustrated that putting oneself in the shoes of somebody else and seeing things from the perspective of others is easier said than done.

I would like to thank all participants who contributed generously to my work, both by producing reports and through sharing more personal experiences and reflections. Thanks are also extended to Rui Gomes and Zsuzsanna Molnár at the EYCB. It is my hope that this report will serve its purpose by keeping the dialogue going and by promoting mutual understanding and respect among young people of all beliefs and origins.

Stockholm, Autumn 2004
Ingrid Ramberg

Conclusions

By the General Rapporteur

SUSPICION, PREJUDICE, IGNORANCE, verbal and physical harassment… The seminar on Islamophobia and its consequences on young people brought to the fore the ongoing, systematic and totally unacceptable discrimination and marginalisation suffered by many European minority groups. Besides young Muslims, who are the main focus of the seminar, the situation of Jews, Roma and visible minorities was addressed with the same concern.

The participants at the seminar included representatives of youth organisations as well as researchers and administrators. Some participants came from official institutions such as schools or municipalities, the majority however came from human rights organisations or students’ organisations. They belonged to different faiths and religious communities. They brought with them, from daily life and from their respective fields of activities, both the experience of having had their human rights violated and the experience of having fought for fair and equal treatment of all members of society. They all departed, I believe, better equipped to carry out the responsibility of being ‘multipliers’ or promoters of our conclusions, forwarding the discussions and the outcomes of the seminar in their own communities and areas of work.

Forming the future for individuals and for society.

What young people experience – what they are exposed to from others, as well as their own behaviour and attitudes – matters tremendously. Like Ms Hadia Himmat said in her talk on the situation of young women: “Young Muslims, as every young person, are in the process of building their personality and identity. They are subject to many influences which come from outside and from different directions.” What then, if the young people she referred to are constantly exposed to Islamophobic acts and attitudes? Hadia Himmat summarises the detrimental effects: Lack of self-esteem, of confidence and of a sense of belonging. Furthermore: as much as this matters on the individual level, it also helps shaping an entire generation’s expectancies of life.

Discrimination is not something that people grow out of or that you easily recover from. This goes for the victims of Islamophobia, and it is equally true for the perpetrators. The prejudices that children are fed with during their upbringing have a very strong tendency to remain part of their worldview as adults. There is no guarantee, hence, that wisdom grows with age alone. Quite the contrary: once carved out, a person’s sense of normality, of what can be expected from life, can not easily be changed.

The above statement makes the role of the perpetrator and of the prejudiced majority, all the more important. As we shall see in the following, this was also where the emphasis of the seminar was placed.

Majority, minority and the question of responsibility

Approaching the phenomenon of Islamophobia does not mean having Islam or Muslims per se as a first focus of interest. Instead it is centred around an attempt to analyse and understand images, ideas and perceptions held by the majority, on the minority. This perspective was elaborated by sociologist Vincent Geisser in his presentation. Using precisely the words image and idea, Mr Geisser underlined the importance of not mistaking the perceptions of the majority for being real portraits of real people(s). The unity of the European conception of self, he exemplified, was forged out in contrast with a constructed “Muslim Other.” Images of course do get coloured by their historical contexts, but they tell us much more about the majority than about the minority.

The fact that Islamophobic representations of Islam or Muslims are the creations of the majority (as are Romaphobic representations of Roma or Anti-Semitic representations of Jews) means that the minority cannot be held responsible for their content. Nor can the minority shoulder the responsbility for change to come about. In a relation characterised by imbalance of power it is simply not possible to expect change to come from the less powerful side. Responsibility for this lies vith the perpetrators, not with the victims.

This may sound self-evident, but tendencies in the other direction did appear during workshop discussions. As one group wrote: “The group also felt that Muslims are partly to be blamed as they are not really able to project a right image of themselves.” It may well be true that more could be done on the side of the Muslims as regards self-presentation. Or from somebody else’s perspective. Still, this is an independent discussion that must never be related to the excusing of discrimination. One case of wrongdoing does not ever justify another.

The function of the seminar, being composed of minority representatives alone, was not to enter into direct dialogue with a non-present counterpart. Instead it was a gathering that enabled people to share and compare experiences, and on the basis of this discuss ways to promote understanding, respect and dialogue. Also it was an occasion that enabled people to feel part of an unquestioned normality, and to gather strength from this.

Fear beyond reason – or strategically exploited?

Ms Mariam Yassin, in her opening statement, described Islamophobia as fear of the unknown. The nature of this fear is furthermore explained if we go deeper into the notion of phobia, which stands for fear beyond reason, a strong and irrational reaction. Mr Geisser too, illustrated this, when he spoke about highways between the peaceful village and terrorism, between the Muslim next door and Bin Laden.

Mr Farid Abdelkrim, during his input on the situation of young men, made an important distinction between what he called individual and social pathologies. The former he exemplified by agoraphobia, the latter by Islamophobia. Unless we make this distinction, he argued, we risk excusing Islamophobia as being a reaction of fear in the face of a threat perceived as objective. Society, concluded Farid Abdelkrim, must take action against this ill that afflicts many of its members and undermines the very foundations on which it is built. That Islamophobia is not just a feeling, pure and simple, becomes clear also from the ways it is in fact reinforced and made use of. During discussions many participants were able to contribute names of parties and individuals involved in the exploitation of fear: the Vlaams Blok (expected to reappear under a new name after having been ruled racist by Belgium’s High Court in November 2004) does it in a very rational and strategic way. Many others do it for populist reasons, not caring the slightest about consequences. And, unfortunately the list does not end with the ones that stand out as extreme, or as extremists. It has to include also the many mainstream politicians who, because of very minor or personal concerns, do not speak up when it is needed.

Interrelated issues shedding light on each other

Apart from Islamophobia, the seminar programme also highlighted other, related forms of racism and discrimination: Anti-Semitism, Romaphobia and racism against visible minorities. The presence of different perspectives brought forward more concretely the many faces of racism and the many directions it may take. Among the dimensions touched upon were:

■ Illegitimate accusations. Parallel to having talked about how racism may be exercised in disguise – as in the case of many populist parties, the seminar also had reason to discuss what happens when legitimate political criticism is wrongly accused of being racist, and is, therefore, rejected. Both these risks were brought up in relation to the present situation in the Middle East. Unfortunately, the problems of communication were illustrated in that some of the discussions came to a deadlock, rather than leading deeper understanding. Another dimension of this topic is the wrongdoing it implies when people are forced into defending things for which they cannot be held responsible. To hold an individual European Jew responsible for the politics of Ariel Sharon is simply not acceptable. Of course it is equally unacceptable to hold any individual Muslim responsible for the acts of Usama Bin Laden.

■ Simultaneous discrimination. Examples were brought up of situations where it is unclear if people are discriminated against on ethnic or religious grounds, or in fact on both grounds at one and the same time. The very difficult issue of double discrimination was particularly relevant to the working group on visible minorities. During her presentation, Ms Hazel Baird mentioned simultaneous discrimination as a special concern.

■ Pros and cons of minority rights. In relation to this it is relevant also to mention the concept of minority, and the minority status of a certain group as a point of departure for defending the rights of this group. Safeguarding minority rights must never be done at the expense of anybody losing the right to take their place within the framework of mainstream society.

■ Social and economic factors. The paramount importance of social and economic factors kept coming back in many of the discussions. Just to mention one example: If Roma children live in an area where there is no school, and if for the sake of poverty parents can not buy bus tickets, then ethnicity or culture must not be put forward as the explanation to why these children do not attend school regularly. As underlined by the European Roma Information Office. “the problems of the Roma originate in the antigypsism of the majority. /…/ Roma are put down to their ‘habits’. Victims are made perpetrators, the behaviour of the majority appears to be some kind of self-defence.”

■ The role of the media. Participants were given quite a lot of input on the role and responsibility of the media. Even without intentional manipulation, insensitive reporting on seemingly trivial matters can promote racism, when multiplied across the media. Also, as was illustrated in an input by Mr Michael Privot, there is a lot of stereotyped reporting on different groups and issues. The media image of Islam as an unchanging entity beyond time and space, was opposed by Mr Vincent Geisser, who instead underlined the importance of modern politics for the shaping of an equally modern form of anti-Muslim racism.

What the situation looks like throughout Europe

It goes without saying that Europe today is a very diverse continent and that the general conditions vary very much in different countries and regions. Equally, the lives of individuals may vary still more, out of choice, or necessity.

Dimensions of this diversity were highlighted throughout the entire seminar. An exploration into regional diversity, as described and discussed by the participants, formed the outline of an initial workshop. Eight different groups sat down to share experiences from their particular regions. The size of the minority groups, the history of societal change (including migration history and economic development) as well as the ideological fundaments of different states – all these were factors reported back on as being important.

The diversity of experiences and settings did not lend itself to any easily reached generalisations. In Poland for instance, with its comparatively small group of Muslims, invisibility in society was one issue brought up, partly because it created problems for converts finding people sharing not only the same belief but also a common language. In Turkey, with Muslims being in the absolute majority, discrimination was very much on the agenda, because of the secular nature of the state.

Further explorations into contemporary European diversity were heard in parts of different presentations. In particular Mr Vincent Geisser discussed in quite some detail the situation in four given countries: United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Spain and France. These four examples served as an elaboration of the thesis that “in the European Union we are all afraid of Islam, but not necessarily for the same reasons or in the same way,” as Mr Geisser put it.

To what extent can hostility be explained?

As with any social phenomenon, establishing clear-cut relations between cause and effect is simply not feasible. The seminar, having departed from the notion of phobia, made it quite clear that there are no simple explanations for the issues raised. A seminar programme that made room for comparisons elaborating history, demography, social and economic situation, as well as politics and the role of the media, gives some indication of the level of complication. If the universal, all-explaining theory remains elusive, there were at least some facets that stood out as unquestionable in that they do play a role in how social relations develop.

An analysis of international research on racism and xenophobia (carried out by Swedish social psychologists Lange & Westin. Ethnic discrimination and social identity, 1981, is although not very recent still highly relevant) that combines findings and theories from different scientific disciplines and suggests the following three elements being particularly important for racism and xenophobia to arise or grow.

1) Unequal distribution of power and resources in society; 2) insufficient contact between different ethnic groups; and 3) insufficient self-esteem among individuals. By themselves or in combinations these factors influence processes in society.

Another, recent study on Islamophobia and Anti-Semitism in Sweden (Forum för levande historia, October 2004), has tried to establish central features shared by tolerant/intolerant young individuals in Sweden. Results show that boys are more intolerant, and that intolerance is more frequent in families with low education, in families living in less urbanised areas, as well as in families with only Swedish-born members. The survey shows little difference between attitudes towards Muslims and Jews (i.e. no marked post-Sept.11 effect). The majority of young people are positive in their attitudes; one in twenty holds markedly intolerant attitudes. On the other hand, as many as one in four are undecided in their attitudes.

These two examples, out of an innumerable number of possible studies, show clearly that “lack of information” is not the source of the problems we face, and, hence, that “information campaigns” are not the answer. The contents and working forms of the seminar too suggest a much more complex response to a situation that involves very deeply the perceptions of both self and of others, as well as the concrete living conditions of all.

Practical response – what can be done?

Diversity is a reality beyond doubt or discussion; how then do we safeguard the rights of all members of society? And how do we promote co-existence and dialogue? These questions were at the heart of the presentation made by Mr François Sant’Angelo, deputy member of the European Commission Against Racism and Intolerance. He gave an overview of the Council of Europe’s standards and instruments related to the fight against Islamophobia, with special emphasis on ECRI’s action in this field.

The programme stated that participants should explore political and educational action aimed at increasing understanding and respect for religious diversity. One very practical way of promoting action against Islamophobia at home is by making use of ECRI’s country monitoring reports and General Policy Recommendations, which possess the authority of an international human rights monitoring body composed of independent experts.

Another valuable resource is, of course, the network of European Youth Centres. By ways of arranging for people to actually meet and interact and also by ways of supporting the multiplicator factor through documentation and support for networking. Since two years ago, there is also Compass – the Manual on Human Rights Education with Young People. The far-reaching and very comprehensive experience poured into this manual has turned it into a well of wisdom; both for instant or limited support, as well as for deeper reflection. Approaching the topic of human rights by way of religion, a dimension not treated independently in Compass, the participants at the seminar on Islamophobia could even make a valuable contribution to the further development of this educational tool.

The comprehensive understanding of the education process that characterises the activities of the European Youth Centres is some-thing apart from just disseminating facts and figures. It aims at really reaching the individuals involved, and at making individuals meet and interact with one another. And it aims at highlighting not only symptoms but also society’s real problems.

Whole table of contents

Legal notice

Copyrights

Contents

Introduction – Questions about the Question

Acknowledgements

Foreword

Conclusions

Forming the future for individuals and for society.

Majority, minority and the question of responsibility

Fear beyond reason – or strategically exploited?

Interrelated issues shedding light on each other

What the situation looks like throughout Europe

To what extent can hostility be explained?

Practical response – what can be done?

Diversity: a prerequisite for cohesion

Time to speak up!

Background and objectives of the seminar

Introductory Speech

Opening statement

The Council of Europe and the work against Islamophobia: Existing instruments and standards

Islamophobia in Europe: from the Christian anti-Muslim prejudice to a modern form of racism

I. An ancient fear that forged our European identity

II. European variations on a common fear: the weight of history and national tradition

The “European wave” of Islamophobia in the wake of 11th September

Contrasting situations depending on the country’s history of nation-building and its specific relationship to “Muslim” population groups

Islam in the Media. A pathway to Islamophobia?

On the origin of images

Working groups on manifestations, causes, and factors of Islamophobia

Hungary and Poland

Bulgaria, Russia, Moldova, Ukraine

South Eastern Europe (The former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, Bosnia, Turkey)

Israel and India

Western Europe

Germany, Switzerland and the Netherlands

Belgium, Spain and Italy

Ireland and the UK

What is a European Muslim identity?

On Islamophobia in Eastern Europe

Romaphobia – Introduction and workshop

More on Romaphobia

Workshop Romaphobia

Anti-Semitism – Introduction and workshop

Workshop Anti-Semitism

Racism towards visible minorities – Introduction and workshop

Visible minorities, Workshop 1 (English)

Visible minorities, Workshop 2 (English/French)

The consequences of Islamophobia on young men. The viewpoint of a Muslim citizen of France

Islamophobia and its consequences on young women

I find my own way of life

Practising or moderate? Why should I need to choose?

Personal encounters as a way to better understanding

Visit to the Bahá’í Centre in Budapest

Examples of good practises

The “Jewish-Arab and citizens’ group for Peace” in Strasbourg, France by Corinne Grassi and “Global Peace Works” in Delhi, India by Omer Khorrum Anis

Swapping cultures – Minorities of Europe

Intercultural youth work with Ms Antonella Aduso, Alouan Intercultural Youth Center, Torino, Italy

The Commission for Racial Equality.

Recommendations

Introduction

Recommendations addressed to

Closing words

Further readings

Participants

Preparatory group

Rapporteur General

Resource persons

Council of Europe

Programme

Sales agents for publications of the Council of Europe – Agents de vente des publications du Conseil de l’Europe

Table of contents

Legal notice

Copyrights

Contents

Introduction – Questions about the Question

Acknowledgements

Foreword

Conclusions

Forming the future for individuals and for society.

Majority, minority and the question of responsibility

Fear beyond reason – or strategically exploited?

Interrelated issues shedding light on each other

What the situation looks like throughout Europe

To what extent can hostility be explained?

Practical response – what can be done?

Whole table of contents